Health Education Research Advance Access originally published online on December 8, 2004
Health Education Research 2005 20(4):448-457; doi:10.1093/her/cyg137
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Health Education Research Vol.20 no.4, © Oxford University Press 2004; All rights reserved
Improving health-enhancing physical activity in girls' physical education
1 REACH Group and School of Physical Education, Sport and Dance, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L17 6BD and 2 REACH Group and Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 2ET, UK
3 Correspondence to: S. Fairclough; E-mail: s.j.fairclough{at}livjm.ac.uk
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Abstract |
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This study examined the effectiveness of an intervention to increase levels of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) during girls' physical education lessons. Two Year 7 classes (age 11–12 years) were randomly appointed to control and experimental groups. Both followed the same six-lesson unit of gymnastics with identical lesson objectives. The experimental class teacher included the additional objective of increasing MVPA during each lesson. MVPA was assessed in all six lessons using heart rate (HR) monitoring and systematic observation. After each lesson, students' intrinsic motivation and perceived competence were assessed, and the teachers evaluated whether they had met planned objectives. The experimental group engaged in more MVPA [F1, 21 = 8.49, P = 0.008 (HR), t8 = –2.35, P = 0.048 (observation)] than the control group and also had most opportunities for skill practice (t8 = –2.81, P = 0.023). Intrinsic motivation and perceived competence levels were similar between the groups for each lesson, and teachers reported that lesson objectives were satisfactorily achieved. This intervention succeeded in increasing MVPA without compromising intrinsic motivation, perceived competence or planned lesson objectives.
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Introduction |
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School physical education is a significant environment for health-enhancing physical activity participation among youth. This is accentuated through the Healthy People 2010 objectives [US Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS), 2000
], which aim to increase the amount of schools timetabling daily physical education, the number of participants and the number of students who are physically active for at least 50% of lesson time. Moreover, physical education experiences may also promote knowledge of, and positive attitudes towards physical activity through the lifespan (Sallis and McKenzie, 1991).
Student engagement in optimal physical activity levels during lessons is an important health-related outcome of physical education (Simons-Morton, 1994), which must be balanced against other subject aims [e.g. motor skills, social and moral development, and aesthetic awareness and creativity (Sallis and McKenzie, 1991)]. However, the diversity of these competing aims means that they are often incompatible with physical activity goals. The fact that activity levels during physical education lessons are extremely variable (Stratton, 1996) is evidence of this. In order for physical education to meet its diverse aims, health and fitness goals should be integrated with other lesson objectives (Ward et al., 1998). This objectives-driven model of planning is advocated as an effective approach to take (Mawer, 1995), because objectives reflect teachers' intentions, which in turn, are predictive of active lessons (Martin et al., 2001). Moreover, teaching physically active lessons does not preclude teachers from also focusing on other lesson goals (Martin et al., 2001). Indeed, during lessons planned and taught in this manner, students are more likely to be physically active while simultaneously engaged in the learning process (Shen et al., 2003).
For physical educators to effectively deliver active lessons, an understanding of the psychological determinants of youth physical activity in the physical education setting is arguably warranted. While students' experiences should be enjoyable and motivating enough to sustain curricular and extracurricular physical activity participation (Sallis et al., 1999), it is possible that high perceived levels of physical exertion can negatively affect lesson enjoyment (Goudas and Biddle, 1993; Fairclough, 2003a). Such situations are undesirable as high levels of intrinsic motivation and enjoyment are linked to persistence and effort (Deci and Ryan, 1985), which are essential if physical education is to promote positive attitudes to physical activity. Thus, physical education should strive to engage students in optimal activity levels, which are facilitated by stimulating and motivating learning environments.
Girls' physical education activity participation is generally less frequent and of a lower intensity than that of boys' (Stratton, 1996; McKenzie et al., 2000). Furthermore, the physiological and psychosocial changes experienced during the high school years may make them a particularly high-risk period for girls to adopt sedentary habits (Rowland, 1999). As heart disease is the leading cause of death amongst women in the UK (Department of Health, 2003) and US (Centers for Disease Control, 2001), the potential health implications of low physical activity levels among girls could be serious. For this reason, physical education should be an important medium to promote girls' physical activity.
The primary aim of this study was to examine whether a teaching intervention could enhance girls' physical education activity levels. A secondary aim was to assess whether the intervention compromised the attainment of planned lesson objectives, and levels of intrinsic motivation and perceived competence.
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Method |
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Participants and settings
This intervention study received ethical approval from the Liverpool John Moores University Ethics Committee and took place in a co-educational high school in the northwest of England. Two Year 7 classes each containing 30 girls (aged 11–12 years) were informed about the study. Thirty-three girls (comprising 18 and 15 from each respective class) returned written informed consent to provide anthropometrical, physical activity and psychological data. The classes were then randomly appointed as control (CON) and experimental groups (EXP). Physical education lessons in Year 7 were timetabled for one 2-hour period per week and were taught by specialist physical education teachers. Classes were taught in mixed-ability, single-sex groups.
Physical education lessons
Data were collected during a six-lesson unit of gymnastics. Both CON and EXP classes followed the same lesson content and objectives, which focused on improving the consistency and quality of basic gymnastic skills. The first lesson sensitized the girls and teachers to the data collection procedures and equipment. Moreover, it provided baseline data relating to body size, physical activity, psychological constructs and lesson context. These were used to establish how well matched the groups were. Following this, both classes took part in five further gymnastics lessons, during which the EXP group was exposed to the teaching intervention.
Instructions to teachers
A female and male physical educator taught the respective CON and EXP classes. Both had more than 4 years teaching experience and both usually taught their respective groups in other physical education activities. The CON class teacher was told that the study aimed to monitor physical activity levels during regular, non-intensified physical education. She was instructed to teach her lessons as usual, making no attempt to deliberately increase physical activity. At no point was she told the purpose of the intervention. Conversely, the EXP class teacher was made fully aware of the study aims. Moreover, he was advised that the lesson content and objectives should not deviate significantly from those described in the unit of work. The key principle of the intervention was that it was based on the EXP teacher including enhanced physical activity levels as an additional lesson objective, alongside existing objectives from the unit of work. He was instructed to use these objectives to underpin his planning in relation to the following:
- Organization of groups and use of space, equipment and resources: maximizing opportunities for individual and small group practice, and making the most efficient use of working space and equipment to allow optimal activity.
- Teaching approaches: appropriate selection of practice and discovery styles of delivery, depending on lesson circumstances.
- Lesson pace: maintaining students' interest during lesson phases and having efficient transitions between them.
- Teacher positioning: circulating close to where students were working to offer feedback and demonstration when necessary.
- ‘Active learning’: maximizing the amount of time that the majority of students were physically active (i.e. ‘time on task’).
- Having fun: making activities, and especially the more vigorous ones (e.g. pulse-raising elements of warm-up), as enjoyable and purposeful as possible, with a clearly defined focus, so pupils would concentrate more on taking part than their level of exertion.
These elements of the intervention were based on recognized effective pedagogical practice (Silverman, 1991). The key was that the EXP lessons had increased physical activity as a primary objective integrated alongside existing ones, rather than as an ‘add-on’. It was therefore hypothesized that enhanced physical activity would be consciously incorporated into the lesson planning and delivery (Martin et al., 2001). As a quality assurance measure, each lesson was discussed prior to teaching with the first author, who offered feedback and made suggestions where necessary.
Data collection
Anthropometric measures
Stature and body mass were measured in private by a female researcher using the methods described by Lohman et al. (Lohman et al., 1988). This data was used to check the extent to which the girls in each group were physically matched. All measurements were taken within the school during the period of the study.
Lesson observation
The participation of each intact class was recorded on videotape using a camcorder (Sony DCR-TRV-140E). The exact times of the start and end of each lesson were noted, and used to mark the commencement and termination points of data collection. A previously validated observation instrument [SOFIT; System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (McKenzie et al., 1991; Rowe et al., 2004)] was used on a lesson-to-lesson basis to establish levels of physical activity, lesson context and teacher behaviour. A brief overview of the SOFIT protocol is presented here, although detailed descriptions can be found elsewhere (McKenzie et al., 1994). On a rotational basis, the physical activity levels of four randomly selected students, the lesson contexts in which they occurred and teacher behaviours were observed, and coded every 20 s using momentary time sampling. Students were coded to determine the intensity of their physical activity. Codes 1 to 4 described the observed student's body position (i.e. lying down, sitting, standing or walking), and code 5 (very active) identified when the student was expending more energy than during normal walking. The sum of codes 4 and 5 represented health-enhancing moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPAobs). The lesson context was coded following a hierarchical format, and included contexts such as class management, knowledge delivery, skill practice and performance. The teachers' behaviours were coded into one of six categories: promotes fitness, demonstrates fitness, instructs generally, manages, observes and off-task.
SOFIT observer training
Each lesson was analysed using SOFIT, following an intensive training period. This consisted of the first author and an assistant studying and learning the coding protocols, and analysing pre-recorded videotapes of other physical education lessons. In addition, discussion sessions were used to clarify any instances of ambiguity. Intra-observer agreements in excess of 85% were achieved for both observers before the study lessons were coded. All reported SOFIT data were observed by the first author.
SOFIT reliability measures
Inter-observer reliability assessments were calculated for 20% of the lessons, which satisfied the minimum number suggested in the SOFIT protocol (McKenzie, 2002). These were randomly selected so as to include one from each of the CON and EXP lessons. Both observers viewed the videotapes of the lessons and independently recorded the same students. Interval-by-interval agreement was 91% for activity level, 87% for lesson context and 89.6% for teacher behaviour, which exceeded the minimum levels of agreement suggested by van der Mars (van der Mars, 1989). To reduce the possibility of observer drift the first author observed and coded two previously analysed videotapes used in the training period. This took place after five of the study lessons had been analysed. As the criterion 85% agreement was satisfied, the remaining five lessons were coded.
Heart rate (HR) data
HR monitors (HRMs; Polar Team System; Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland) were programmed to record HR once every 5 s and commenced recording on fitting. Prior to the baseline lesson a female teacher demonstrated and explained to the girls how to securely fit the HRMs. Before each subsequent lesson, the same female teacher checked whether each girl's HRM was correctly fitted and that HR was being recorded. At the end of the lessons HRMs were removed and immediately interfaced with a computer, and data were downloaded for analyses. The HR data recorded outside of the exact start and end times of the lessons were disregarded. HRs during sleep were measured once during the data collection period to provide an individualized measure of HR at rest. Using these values and an estimated maximum HR of 200 beats/min (Stratton, 1996), 50% HR reserve (HRR) thresholds were calculated for each girl. This threshold represents moderate physical activity (Stratton, 1996), which is the minimal intensity required to contribute to the recommended volume of health-related activity (Biddle et al., 1998). Percentage of lesson time spent in MVPAHR was calculated for each girl by summing the time spent at or above the 50% HRR threshold (Stratton, 1996).
Psychological data
To assess the intervention's impact on selected psychological determinants of activity, immediately after each lesson the girls completed a nine-item questionnaire to assess intrinsic motivation (IM) and perceived competence (PC). Five of the items were taken from the enjoyment/interest and four from the perceived competence subscales of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (McAuley et al., 1989). The girls were required to respond to each statement on a five-point Likert scale. Following completion, the questionnaires were scored and mean values for IM and PC were generated for analyses.
Teacher evaluations
Both teachers completed a simple evaluation form after each lesson. This listed each of their planned lesson objectives and they were asked to indicate whether or not each one had successfully been met. Space for comments was also included. These forms were completed as soon as possible after the lesson and returned to the lead researcher on a weekly basis.
Data analyses
Girls with incomplete data sets were eliminated from the analyses, leaving intact data available from 14 (CON) and 12 (EXP) girls, respectively. The reasons for this attrition included absence from school, illness or injury which prevented participation in physical education and loss of HRM signal transmission during monitoring. All dependent variables were checked for homogeneity of variance and normality using Levene's tests and Shapiro–Wilk tests, respectively. Where data were not normal or homogenous, and log transformation was unable to correct them, they were ranked and parametric procedures (i.e. t-test, ANOVA or ANCOVA) were applied. From the resultant t or F values, L statistics were derived by hand, following the procedure described by Thomas et al. (Thomas et al., 1999). This method is recommended as an alternative to non-parametric tests, which may lack the statistical power of their parametric equivalents. Where applicable, L values were reported in the results. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 11.0.1 (SPSS, Chicago, IL) and statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.
Participant characteristics and baseline lesson data
Independent t-tests were performed to establish group differences in age, height, weight, resting HR and 50% HRR thresholds. Independent t-tests were also applied to baseline data derived from Lesson 1, in order to establish whether the two groups were matched with regard to physical activity and psychological variables. Baseline SOFIT data were analysed and reported descriptively as the percentage of lesson time spent in each category.
Intervention lessons
To compare IM and PC, 5 x 2 (lesson x class) repeated measures ANOVAs were performed on ranked data. Furthermore, the overall means of IM and PC values from Lessons 2–6 were included as covariates in the HR data analysis. Log-transformed MVPAHR data underwent 5 x 2 (lesson x class) repeated measures ANCOVAs, with body weight, IM and PC as covariates. The assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes was met for each covariate. Independent t-tests were performed on all SOFIT category data to identify inter-group differences.
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Results |
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Baseline lessons
Analyses of participants' characteristics and baseline lesson data returned non-significant results, suggesting that both groups were satisfactorily matched with regard to physical characteristics, physical activity levels and psychological responses (Table I). Baseline SOFIT data (Table II) revealed that both groups spent similar amounts of time engaged in fitness activity, but more EXP lesson time was devoted to skill practice and management. Furthermore, the CON group received most general instruction, and participated in more very active behaviour and MVPAobs. The major discrepancy in the baseline data was the lesson durations (CON = 85.0 min, EXP = 59.1 min). Staff absence on the day of the EXP group's lesson meant that there was not an extra teacher present as planned to facilitate fitting the HRMs. As a result, the start of this lesson was substantially delayed.
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Intervention lessons
Although the lessons were timetabled for 2-hour periods, actual lesson duration was considerably less. Roll call, changing into physical education uniforms and fitting of HRMs reduced lesson duration to an average of 82.4 ± 7.8 and 76.0 ± 2.7 min for the CON and EXP groups, respectively. The EXP lessons were shorter because they followed a morning assembly, whereas CON lessons followed a morning break period. MVPAHR was greatest for the EXP group during each of the five lessons (Table III). ANCOVA revealed that overall there were no significant differences in MVPAHR between lessons, but that there was a main effect between groups (F1, 21 = 8.49, P = 0.008; Figure 1). The EXP and CON groups reported similar IM and PC values, which were also stable between lessons (Table III). According to SOFIT data (Table IV) both groups spent the greatest proportion of lesson time sitting and standing, but EXP students engaged in more MVPAobs than the CON group (18.5 versus 13.5%; t8 = –2.35, P = 0.047). Furthermore, EXP students had most opportunities for skill practice (43.1 versus 34.7%; t8 = –2.81, P = 0.023).
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Teacher evaluations
For each lesson both teachers expressed that they achieved their planned objectives. The EXP teacher indicated that the inclusion of improved MVPA as a lesson objective did not appear to compromise student learning. Moreover, he evaluated the lessons in a positive manner, highlighting that the revised organizational and teaching approaches led to more perceived student time on task and less opportunities for static lesson episodes.
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Discussion |
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MVPA
This investigation demonstrated the potential of an intervention to increase girls' physical education activity levels, as the EXP students engaged in MVPAHR for an average of 11.9% more lesson time than the CON group. Moreover, the EXP group's MVPAHR levels were achieved without negatively impacting on their IM, PC or planned lesson objectives. Previous interventions have demonstrated how physical activity can be significantly intensified during physical education (MacConnie et al., 1982
; Baquet et al., 2002). However, these training-like studies did not consider the educational and motivational context of the lessons. This intervention was successful because it centered on how the physical education lessons were planned and delivered. Through modified teaching approaches, management techniques and equipment layouts, the EXP lessons maximized opportunities for active student participation. As a result, EXP students spent more time walking and engaged in more very active behaviour than the CON group. Furthermore, the EXP lessons provided significantly greater opportunities for skill practice than the CON lessons and devoted less time to management, which can be a static lesson context. Such episodes of free skill practice allowed the students to work independently of the teacher, and gave the option for repeated practice of skills and sequences. Augmented practice occasions may effectively promote motor skill learning (McKenzie et al., 2000) and students with superior motor skills are likely to achieve greater physical activity engagement during lessons (Rink, 1994). The EXP group teacher spent 9.6% more time giving general instruction than his CON colleague. However, this was characterized by short and concise instructions, and through providing supplementary information on a small group basis or to the whole group whilst they continued to work. The resultant effect was that the EXP class had more time for skill practice.
The MVPAHR levels achieved by the CON students were similar to those previously reported in gymnastics lessons (Fairclough, 2003b), while MVPAHR for the EXP group was greater. However, neither class met the USDHHS (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000) objective for students to be physically active for 50% of lesson time. Conversely, Stratton (Stratton, 1997) reported that 11- to 12-year-old girls engaged in HR > 150 beats/min for more than 50% of gymnastics lesson time. However, substantial variability between gymnastics lessons and units with differing aims was noted, highlighting the differences in physical activity participation within the same physical education activities. Such discrepancies have commonly been attributed to inter-individual, pedagogical and environmental factors (Stratton, 1996).
Intrinsic motivation and perceived competence
Levels of IM and PC were stable and relatively high in both groups, suggesting that these variables were largely unaffected by the students' level of physical activity engagement. This is in contrast to a recent study where a negative correlation was observed between girls' enjoyment and MVPA, during a range of physical education activities (Fairclough, 2003a). It is possible that the girls in the present study had positive perceptions of gymnastics in comparison to other physical education activities. Also, it is quite probable that individual activities which emphasize aesthetic qualities are perceived as feminine and girls may be more likely to approach these lessons with greater confidence than other types of activities (Corbin, 2002). Moreover, PC levels are expected to be higher when the activity is perceived as gender appropriate (Solmon et al., 2003). Thus, due to the reduced risk of negative student perceptions of the activity, gymnastics may have more potential than some other areas of the curriculum for successful implementation of physical activity strategies among girls.
Physical activity measurement
HRM and SOFIT identified significant group differences in physical activity, but the percent of time that students were active differed markedly. This was unsurprising, as HRMs provide an individualized measure of the cardiorespiratory response to physical activity, which is dependent on the exercise intensity, frequency and duration. Conversely, SOFIT is a measure of four students' physical activity behaviours during different lesson intervals. More specific reasons for the discrepancies between instruments were likely to be related to students' HRs remaining elevated during stationary periods following bouts of activity. Furthermore, it is possible that differences in motor skill competence and motivation of the four students assessed by SOFIT may not have been truly representative of the rest of the class. Although the outcome of both measures was expressed as MVPA, its calculation was based on differing dimensions of physical activity (Saris, 1986). For this reason comparisons of MVPA data between different studies should recognize the distinctions between what aspect of physical activity has actually been assessed.
A strength of this study was that it combined different physical activity measures, which allowed links between student activity, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours to be explored. Furthermore, the intervention utilized the lesson objective of augmented activity levels, which has been demonstrated to reflect teachers' intentions and therefore predict their teaching of active lessons (Martin et al., 2001). The intervention was also underpinned by sound pedagogical practice and modifications, rather than intensified content that was not specific to gymnastics. However, some limiting factors should be considered when interpreting the results. First, the data were derived from a small sample in one school, during one activity over a relatively short small number of lessons. Second, it is unknown whether the data derived from the baseline lessons were truly representative of each class. Introducing the intervention mid-way through a longer unit of work (e.g. 12 lessons) using a quasi-experimental interrupted time-series design, would have provided a more thorough test of its effectiveness. Unfortunately, units of work lasted for only six to eight lessons in the school where the research took place. Lastly, two classes were taught by a female and male teacher. This may have threatened the internal validity of the study to an extent, as the teachers may have done some things differently that SOFIT was unable to detect. Furthermore, the students may have reacted differently to one teacher than they would have done with the other. These possibilities are acknowledged, but by keeping each class with their regular teacher, the ecological soundness of the study was arguably strengthened.
This investigation illustrated how the amount of MVPA in physical education can be increased without compromising planned aspects of learning. Furthermore, if lessons are thoughtfully planned and delivered in a stimulating manner, then increased activity levels can be attained without negatively effecting student motivation or perceptions of competence. This is significant as these psychological constructs are strongly related to positive attitudes and persistence in physical activity. The investigation also demonstrated that gains in MVPA can be realized in activities whose goals and characteristics may seemingly contrast with health-enhancing physical activity. Multidisciplinary methods can yield rich sources of information, which may better inform the development of strategies to engage students in health-enhancing activity during physical education.
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Acknowledgments |
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The authors gratefully acknowledge the cooperation and support of the school, teachers and students who participated in the study.
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Received on July 27, 2004; accepted on October 17, 2004
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